Tag: Exploitation

India’s journey to freedom was neither swift nor simple-it was a centuries-long saga of resilience, rebellion, and renaissance. While the climax arrived on 15 August 1947, the struggle had its roots in the earliest invasions that disrupted the subcontinent’s autonomy. This story spans from medieval conquests to colonial exploitation, from fragmented resistance to unified nationalism, and from armed uprisings to non-violent mass movements.
Before the Raj: Early Invasions
The Turkish and Mughal Periods

The first significant foreign incursions into India’s political structure began with Mahmud of Ghazni’s raids in the 11th century, followed by Muhammad Ghori’s conquests in the late 12th century. These invasions led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526), which reshaped governance and trade but also saw resistance from local rulers like the Rajputs.
The arrival of the Mughals in 1526, under Babur, ushered in a new imperial order. While the Mughal period (especially under Akbar) was known for cultural synthesis, by the 18th century, weakening central control allowed European trading companies to gain influence.
The European Footprint: Traders to Rulers
Portuguese and Dutch Presence
The Portuguese, led by Vasco da Gama’s arrival in 1498, were the first Europeans to establish a foothold, controlling ports like Goa. The Dutch East India Company followed, though their influence remained largely in trade.
The British East India Company
An official of the East India Company in processionSurrounded by Indians, a colonial official of the British East India Company moving on horseback in a procession. Watercolor on paper, c. 1825–30. The British first arrived not as conquerors, but as merchants, drawn by India’s extraordinary wealth, which had been famous in the West since Greek times. They arrived to find India dominated by the vast Mughal empire, which had been established in the 16th century by the conqueror Babur and now ruled most of the subcontinent. In 1613, the Mughal emperor Jahangir granted the British permission to establish a trading post in Surat, Gujarat, which would become the first British foothold in India.
Over the following century, the British East India Company established additional trading posts and also gradually increased its economic and political influence throughout the subcontinent. After the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal empire entered a rapid phase of decline, providing an opening for various regional powers, including the Marathas, the Sikhs, and the northern Rajput chiefs to assert their sovereignty. By the middle of the 18th century, there was no longer a single dominant power in the subcontinent, leaving the region vulnerable to colonial ambitions.
The Battle of Plassey
The Battle of Plassey in 1757, part of the larger Seven Years’ War between Britain and France, was a turning point in the British conquest of India. The East India Company had increasingly solidified its position and was now regarded by native rulers as a serious threat. The nawab (ruler) of Bengal, Siraj al-Dawlah, favoring an alliance with the French, had previously attacked company trading posts. With the help of some of the nawab’s own generals, the British were able to defeat and depose the nawab at the Battle of Plassey and appointed their own administration in Bengal. This crucial victory marked the transformation of the British East India Company from a mere mercantile presence into a military and political power in India. The company would go on to consolidate its power over the Indian subcontinent through a series of military campaigns. It established its dominance in Bengal and Bihar with the Battle of Buxar (1764), in southern India with Tipu Sultan’s defeat in the fourth Mysore War (1799), and in the Punjab following the second Sikh war (1848-49).
The Rebellion of 1857 and the British raj
By the 1850s, the company had consolidated its rule over much of India, fostering widespread discontent and a pattern of unrest that produced localized uprisings such as the Sannyasi Rebellion in the late 18th century and the Santhal Rebellion of 1855–56. On May 10, 1857, however, a rebellion erupted in Meerut that would profoundly alter the dynamic between India and Britain. Sepoys (Indian soldiers) in the company’s service shot their British officers and marched to Delhi, rallying local troops to their cause. By the evening of May 11, they had declared the aged Bahadur Shah II the emperor of India, symbolically restoring the Mughals to power and rejecting British rule.
The Rebellion of 1857, often called as the Sepoy Mutiny in traditional British historiography, spread rapidly across northern and central India. It produced fierce battles at Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow, and it eventually involved leaders such as Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope, and Lakshmi Bai, the rani (“queen”) of Jhansi. Lakshmi Bai in particular became a legendary symbol of resistance against British rule; after the British attempted to annex Jhansi using the pretext of the doctrine of lapse, Lakshmi Bai took command of the rebels in the Bundelkhand region and fought valiantly before being killed in battle on June 17, 1858.
By the end of 1858, the revolt was largely suppressed. The British captured Bahadur Shah II and exiled him to Rangoon (now Yangon, Myanmar [Burma]), where he died in 1862, marking the end of the Mughal dynasty. In response to the revolt, the British government recognized the administrative failures of the East India Company, and the British crown assumed direct rule of India, initiating the period known as the British raj.
The failure of the revolt had a profound psychological impact on the people of India. The sepoys, the native princes, the queen of Jhansi, and the heir of Mughal grandeur had made their stand against the British—and they had failed. From this time all serious hope of a revival of the past or an exclusion of the West diminished. The traditional structure of Indian society began to break down and was eventually superseded by a Westernized class system, from which emerged a strong middle class with a heightened sense of Indian nationalism.
Formation of the Indian National Congress
Yet the struggle continued. On December 28, 1885, the Indian National Congress (Congress Party) was formed, marking the inception of the first major nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire outside Britain. Led largely by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant sympathetic to the cause of Indian freedom, the Congress Party was initially established as a platform for educated Indians to discuss political issues and advocate for a greater role in governance. The first meeting was held in Bombay (now Mumbai), drawing 72 delegates from across the Indian subcontinent. These initial delegates were largely Western-educated and from elite backgrounds and focused on moderate reforms rather than outright independence.
By the early 20th century, a strong “extremist” faction emerged within the Indian National Congress in response to British policies, especially after the 1905 partition of Bengal, which was widely viewed as an attempt to weaken nationalist sentiment in the region. The partition of Bengal sparked the Swadeshi Movement (swadeshi: “of one’s own country”), the first organized mass action against British rule; though it declined by 1908, its central aim was achieved when the partition was annulled in 1911. By 1907, a clear delineation existed within the Congress between the “extremists,” led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, and the “moderates,” led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
Formation of the All-India Muslim League
The All-India Muslim League, the first political party for Muslims in India, was founded in Dhaka (now the capital of Bangladesh) on December 30, 1906. This development was driven by the increasing dissatisfaction among Indian Muslims with the Indian National Congress, which many perceived as primarily representing Hindu interests. The party was heavily influenced by the visionary Indian Muslim leader Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, who had died in 1898, and was founded by leaders including Mian Muhammad Shafi, Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Syed Ameer Ali, Mualana Mohammad Ali Jouhar, and Sir Sultan Mohammed Shah (the league’s first president, also known as Aga Khan III). Sir Muhammad Iqbal would emerge as a key voice within a few years of the party’s founding.
The league aimed to safeguard the rights of Indian Muslims and initially espoused loyalty to the British raj as a means to achieve greater civil rights and counterbalance the dominance of the Congress Party. The Muslim League would eventually lay the groundwork for modern Pakistan. Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who joined the league in 1913, would later transform the political party into a mass movement for Muslim autonomy.
Gandhi’s return from South Africa
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, later known as Mahatma (“Great Soul”) Gandhi, was born in 1869 in Porbandar, India, and initially trained as a lawyer in England before relocating to South Africa. There, he advocated for civil rights and developed his foundational philosophy of nonviolent resistance. After spending over two decades in South Africa, Gandhi returned to India in 1915 amid the backdrop of World War I and joined the Indian National Congress. Initially, he remained at the periphery of the movement, supporting the British war effort and refraining from political agitation. However, his perspective shifted dramatically following the enactment of the Rowlatt Act in 1919.
The Rowlatt Act is passed
In February 1919 the British government passed the Rowlatt Act, which empowered authorities to imprison suspected independence activists without trial and allowed for certain political cases to be tried without juries. The object of this act was to replace the repressive provisions of the wartime Defence of India Act with a permanent law. Indians felt profoundly betrayed after their support of Britain throughout World War I, and resentment spread throughout the country. Gandhi, provoked by the act, announced his initial satyagraha (“clinging to truth”) struggle, advocating nonviolent civil disobedience, which would lead to a political earthquake throughout the spring of 1919.
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
On April 13, 1919, British troops under the command of Gen. Reginald Dyer fired on a crowd of unarmed civilians in Amritsar. Following Gandhi’s calls for resistance and a one-day general strike earlier that month, protests had broken out across the country, particularly in Punjab. In Amritsar, following the arrests of prominent Indian leaders, protests had turned violent on April 10. A force of several dozen troops commanded by General Dyer was tasked with restoring order, and among the measures taken was a ban on public gatherings.
On the afternoon of April 13, a crowd of at least 10,000 men, women, and children gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden near the Golden Temple that was nearly completely enclosed by walls and had only one exit. It is not clear how many people there were protesters who were defying the ban on public meetings and how many had come to the city from the surrounding region to celebrate Baisakhi, a spring festival. Dyer and his soldiers arrived and sealed off the exit. Without warning, the troops opened fire on the crowd, reportedly shooting hundreds of rounds until they ran out of ammunition. It is not certain how many died in the bloodbath, but, according to one official British report, an estimated 379 people were killed, and about 1,200 more were wounded. After they ceased firing, the troops immediately withdrew, leaving behind the dead and wounded.
The shooting was followed by the proclamation of martial law in Punjab that included public floggings and other humiliations. Indian outrage grew as news of the shooting and subsequent British actions spread throughout the subcontinent. The Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore renounced the knighthood that he had received in 1915. Gandhi was initially hesitant to act, but he soon began organizing the noncooperation movement (1920–22), his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest campaign.
The noncooperation movement
Launched in 1920 Gandhi’s noncooperation movement, backed by the Congress Party, was a mass protest against British authority advocating nonparticipation in colonial institutions. Indians were encouraged to resign from their titles; boycott government educational institutions, courts, government services, foreign goods, and elections; and, eventually, refuse to pay taxes. The noncooperation movement rapidly gained momentum amid growing national anger toward the British raj, particularly in the wake of the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. The heavy-handedness of the British government and its failure to adequately address the actions of General Dyer only intensified the Indian resolve for self-governance.
By 1921 the British government, confronted with a united Indian front for the first time, was visibly shaken. The noncooperation movement had definitively shown the potential of united, nonviolent civil disobedience against the colonial regime; additionally, it marked the transition of Indian nationalism from a middle-class movement to a nationwide struggle. Gandhi, at this point, emerged as the de facto leader of both the Indian National Congress and the independence movement itself. The noncooperation movement also drew support from the Khilafat movement, which was mobilizing Muslim protest against the dissolution of the Ottoman empire after World War I. Gandhi’s solidarity with the Khilafat movement helped strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity during this phase of the independence struggle.
However, Gandhi called an end to the noncooperation movement in 1922 after an angry mob in Chauri Chaura killed 22 police officers. Gandhi feared that the movement was becoming violent, contrary to its principles. Gandhi was arrested for sedition that year and sentenced to six years in prison. Jawaharlal Nehru, a young leader within the Congress Party who would later become India’s first prime minister, had been arrested the previous year for anti-government activity and released a few months later.
Gandhi was released in 1924 after serving only two years of his sentence. By the time of his release, the political landscape had changed significantly. The Indian National Congress had split into two factions: one led by Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru (the father of Jawaharlal Nehru), favoring participation in the British-dominated legislative councils as a means to gain political influence, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this approach and advocating for a more assertive stance against British authority. Additionally, the unity between Hindus and Muslims had deteriorated. In 1924 Gandhi was named president of the Congress Party, a position he held for a year.
Declaration of Purna Swaraj
On January 26, 1930, the Indian National Congress publicly declared its Purna Swaraj (“Complete Self-Rule”) resolution, decisively rejecting the idea of dominion status within the British Empire and establishing full sovereignty as the goal of the independence movement. Initially, some leaders within the movement had aimed for dominion status, which would have given India a position similar to that of Canada and Australia within the British Empire. However, as the movement progressed, this idea was increasingly viewed as inadequate by Congress Party leaders.
The resolution was initially passed by the Congress Party on December 19, 1929, during the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, who at the time was the youngest person to hold that position in the party. The resolution was publicly declared the following month, with the Congress Party urging Indians to celebrate January 26 as Independence Day. Although August 15 was later chosen as India’s official Independence Day after achieving independence in 1947, the date January 26 remained significant. The constitution of India was drafted to take effect on January 26, 1950, to honor the 1930 declaration, marking India’s transition to a republic. Today, January 26 is celebrated annually as Republic Day in India.
The Salt March
In March 1930 Gandhi launched the Salt March (popularly known as the Dandi March), a satyagraha campaign against the British monopoly on salt. Salt production and distribution in India had long been a lucrative monopoly of the British. Through a series of laws, the Indian populace was prohibited from producing or selling salt independently, and instead Indians were required to buy expensive, heavily taxed salt that often was imported. This affected the great majority of Indians, who were poor and could not afford to buy it. Indian protests against the salt tax began in the 19th century and remained a major contentious issue throughout the period of British rule.
Gandhi decided to mount a highly visible demonstration against the increasingly repressive salt tax by marching through what is now the western Indian state of Gujarat from his ashram (religious retreat) at Sabarmati (near Ahmadabad) to the town of Dandi (near Surat) on the Arabian Sea coast. He set out on foot on March 12, accompanied by several dozen followers. After each day’s march the group stopped in a village along the route, where increasingly larger crowds would gather to hear Gandhi speak about the unfairness of the tax on poor people. Hundreds more would join the core group of followers as they made their way to the sea, until on April 5 the entourage reached Dandi after a journey of some 240 miles (385 km). On the morning of April 6, Gandhi and his followers picked up handfuls of salt along the shore, thus technically “producing” salt and breaking the law.
In May Gandhi was arrested after informing Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India, of his intention to march on the Dharasana saltworks. Gandhi’s arrest further fueled the movement, prompting tens of thousands more people to join the satyagraha. On May 21 Sarojini Naidu, a well-known political activist and poet, led a march to the saltworks, where many of the 2,500 peaceful marchers were brutally attacked and beaten by police. By the end of 1930 approximately 60,000 people were imprisoned as part of the civil disobedience campaign. In January 1931 Gandhi was released from custody and began negotiations with Irwin, leading to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed on March 5, 1931. This truce ended the satyagraha campaign and allowed Gandhi, accompanied by Naidu, to represent the Indian National Congress at the second section of the Round Table Conference in London later that year. This session, however failed to reach agreement, either on a constitutional framework or on communal representation.
The Poona Pact, Ambedkar, and the movement against “untouchability”
The Poona Pact, signed on September 24, 1932, was a significant agreement between Hindu leaders and Dalit representatives, granting new rights to Dalits, Hindu caste groups then labeled “untouchables.” This agreement arose from the British government’s Communal Award, which proposed separate electorates for Dalits to ensure their political representation. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, the most prominent Dalit leader, supported the proposal, believing that it would allow Dalits to advance their interests. However, Mahatma Gandhi opposed separate electorates, fearing that it would divide the Hindu community and weaken India’s fight for independence. While imprisoned, Gandhi began a fast unto death on September 18, 1932, to protest the separate electorates. Faced with Gandhi’s deteriorating health, Ambedkar and Hindu leaders negotiated the Poona Pact, which increased Dalit representation within the Hindu electorate instead of creating separate electorates.
Ambedkar’s advocacy of Dalit rights was rooted in his personal experiences of discrimination and his extensive education. Born on April 14, 1891, into a Dalit Mahar family, Ambedkar faced severe social exclusion from an early age. Nonetheless, he excelled academically, to the extent that he came to the attention of Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the maharaja of Baroda (now Vadodara). The maharaja provided financial support for Ambedkar’s education at Bombay’s Elphinstone College and later at Columbia University in the United States and the London School of Economics in Britain. Ambedkar would use this education to champion the cause of Dalit rights upon his return to India. Ambedkar would also later become the chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution for the future Republic of India.
Although the Poona Pact was a significant development in the movement against “untouchability,” Ambedkar felt coerced into the agreement by Gandhi’s threat of suicide by starvation. Nonetheless, Ambedkar’s work would continue. He would found several journals for Dalits and, through his later role in drafting the Indian constitution, secure special representation for them in legislative councils. His efforts laid the foundation for future advancements in social justice and the eventual outlawing of untouchability, although cultural caste prejudice continues to persist in India.
Provincial elections of 1937
Following the Government of India Act of 1935, which granted significant autonomy to the provinces of India in response to increasing momentum in the struggle against British rule, elections were held during the winter of 1936–37, and results were declared in February 1937. The Indian National Congress emerged victorious in seven provinces, demonstrating its popularity with the Indian populace. This allowed the Congress Party to form provincial governments, giving Indians significant control over local governance for the first time in over a century. The Muslim League, however, was unable to establish a government in any province, even the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The Congress Party ministries resigned only a few years later, in 1939, in protest against India being declared a belligerent nation in World War II without consultation.
World War II begins
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the Indian Independence Movement entered its last, crucial phase. The viceroy of India, Victor Alexander John Hope (commonly known as Lord Linlithgow), declared that India was at war with Germany, to the dismay of the Congress Party, which had not been consulted. Throughout the war, Indian soldiers would fight for Britain in Asia, Africa, and Europe.
The Indian National Congress, under the leadership of figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, grappled with how to respond to the war. Gandhi, a staunch anti-fascist, was fundamentally opposed to all forms of violence, including war. However, he was equally critical of British colonialism. Initially, the Congress Party was willing to support the British war effort, provided that Britain assured India of eventual self-governance. However, the British did not agree to this condition, leading the Congress Party to distance itself from Britain as the war progressed. In contrast, the Muslim League fully supported the war effort.
The Lahore Resolution and the idea of Pakistan
In March 1940 the Muslim League fully resolved to chart its own path. In Punjab’s ancient capital of Lahore, the league called for the creation of a separate state for Muslims, under the leadership of Mohammad Ali Jinnah. The famous Lahore Resolution, later known as the Pakistan Resolution, was passed by the largest gathering of league delegates just one day after Jinnah informed his followers that “the problem of India is not of an inter-communal but manifestly of an international character.” The league resolved, therefore, that any future constitutional plan proposed by the British for India would not be “acceptable to the Muslims” unless it was so designed that the Muslim-majority “areas” of India’s “North-Western and Eastern Zones” were “grouped to constitute ‘independent States’ in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.” Although the term “Pakistan” was not mentioned in the resolution itself, it was popularized by the Hindu press in their coverage shortly after the resolution was passed, and the term was then widely adopted by Muslims. Jinnah later clarified that the resolution envisioned the establishment of not two separately administered Muslim countries but rather a single Muslim nation-state—namely, Pakistan.
The Quit India Movement
On July 14, 1942, the Congress Party passed its “Quit India” resolution calling for an immediate end to British rule in India. The involvement of India in the war outraged many Indian political leaders, who, despite a range of opinions on the just nature of the war, thought it was morally wrong for the British to force their subjects into the fighting without consulting Indian leadership and to use Indian resources for the effort. By the war’s end 2.5 million Indians had served in the British armed forces, though the majority were volunteers.
As the war continued and Japanese armies swept through Britain’s Southeast Asian colonies—Singapore, Malaya (now Malaysia), and Burma (now Myanmar)—a faction of the Congress Party began to call for India to gain immediate independence from Britain in order to avoid a Japanese invasion. Japanese forces moved into the Bay of Bengal, attacked British ships, and bombed the east coast ports of Visakhapatnam and Kakinada, thus making the threat of full-scale war on Indian soil seem imminent. Gandhi became more adamant about the departure of the British colonists and less concerned about internal squabbles among Indian leadership. He notably demanded of the British in his magazine Harijan on May 24, 1942: “Leave India to God. If that is too much leave her to anarchy.”
The Congress Party’s resolution authorized Gandhi to lead a mass nonviolent protest movement if independence was not granted. The slogan “Quit India” was coined by the mayor of Bombay (now Mumbai), Yusuf Meherally. When the British government failed to meet its demands, the Congress Party met in Bombay and voted on August 8 to initiate the Quit India Movement. During that meeting, Gandhi delivered his “Do or Die” speech, in which he famously declared: “The mantra is ‘Do or Die.’ We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.”
The morning after the Quit India resolution was agreed upon in Bombay, British authorities invoked the Defense of India Act, which permitted detention without a trial, to arrest Gandhi and dozens of other leaders of the Congress Party, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and Vallabhbhai Patel. Concern for Gandhi’s age and fear of worldwide condemnation persuaded the British not to jail Gandhi, and instead they confined him in the Aga Khan summer palace in Pune along with his wife, Kasturba, his secretary, and some followers. The British authorities erroneously hoped they could stifle the movement by imprisoning its leaders.
The British authorities were, however, misguided. Younger leaders stepped forward; among the most prominent of these was Aruna Asaf Ali, who presided over the August 9 Congress session in Bombay, hoisted the Congress flag, and galvanized protesters across the country. The absence of senior Congress leaders also enabled more militant forces to turn the movement in a more incendiary direction. The British government, particularly secretary of state Leopold Amery in a radio address, further fanned the flames by justifying the arrests of the Congress Party leaders as a means of preventing mass violence. Amery’s description of the movement’s disruptive tactics might have inadvertently given voice and legitimacy to those very actions among more militant protesters. Also partly due to the lack of Congress Party leaders emphasizing nonviolence, many demonstrations turned into attacks on the British themselves and parts of the British raj’s infrastructure. Telegraph lines and railroads were destroyed, and hundreds of railway stations, post offices, and police stations were burned down or damaged.
The British response to these protests was often brutal. The military, already present in India in larger than usual numbers for the war effort, was deployed to disperse rioters, and in a few cases airplanes were instructed to fire their machine guns on the crowds from the air. Parts of the United Provinces, Bihar, the North-West Frontier, and Bengal (now West Bengal state and Bangladesh) were bombed and strafed by pilots as the British raj resolved to crush all Indian resistance as swiftly as possible. Thousands of people were killed or wounded, and roughly 60,000 arrests were made in the first few months. Most of those arrested, along with the leaders of the Congress Party, were imprisoned for the duration of World War II to prevent further protests, although Gandhi was released on May 6, 1944, because of his failing health.
Although the movement failed to achieve its stated aim of gaining India’s immediate independence from British rule, its impact was profound. The Quit India Movement demonstrated the willingness of ordinary Indians to take action to advance their independence and proved to the British government the necessity of decolonization after World War II.
Subhas Chandra Bose and his Indian National Army
Running parallel to the activities of Gandhi, Nehru, and the other nationalist leaders was the career of Subhas Chandra Bose, an individual with a biography worthy of Shakespearean tragedy. Commonly known as Netaji (“Respected Leader”), he was at times an ally and at other times an adversary of Gandhi. Dedicated to the independence movement from a young age, he advocated for broad industrialization, in contrast with Gandhi’s preference for cottage industries, and favored a militant approach to the independence struggle, as opposed to Gandhi’s insistence on nonviolence.
During World War II, Bose sought alliances with Germany and Japan. Desperate for military support, he believed that they could aid India in driving the British out. In 1943, with Japanese aid and assistance, he proclaimed the establishment of a provisional independent Indian government and formed a trained army of about 40,000 troops in Japanese-occupied Southeast Asia, which he called the “Indian National Army” (Azad Hind Fauj). Alongside Japanese troops, his forces advanced to Rangoon (now Yangon) and thence overland into India, reaching Indian soil on March 18, 1944, and moving into Kohima and the plains of Imphal.
In a stubborn battle, the mixed Indian and Japanese forces, lacking Japanese air support, were defeated and forced to retreat; the Indian National Army nevertheless for some time succeeded in maintaining its identity as a liberation army, based in Burma (now Myanmar) and later broader Southeast Asia. With the defeat of Japan, however, Bose’s fortunes ended. A few days after Japan’s announced surrender in August 1945, Bose, fleeing Southeast Asia, reportedly died in a Japanese hospital in Taiwan as a result of burn injuries from a plane crash.
World War II ends
By the end of World War II, Britain was greatly diminished, under immense international pressure to decolonize and, following the Quit India Movement, increasingly recognizing the necessity of withdrawal from India. In the 1945 United Kingdom general elections, Churchill’s Conservative Party government was voted out of power, and the new Labour Party prime minister, Clement Attlee, appointed one of Gandhi’s old admirers, Lord Frederick William Pethick-Lawrence, as Secretary of State for India and Burma. With the dawn of the atomic age in August and Japan’s surrender, London’s primary concern in India was how to find the political solution to the Hindu-Muslim conflict that would most expeditiously permit the British raj to withdraw its forces and to extricate as many of its assets as possible from what seemed to the Labour Party to have become more of an imperial burden and liability than any real advantage for Great Britain.

The 1946 Cabinet Mission
In 1946 Pethick-Lawrence personally led a three-man cabinet deputation to New Delhi with the hope of resolving the Congress Party–Muslim League deadlock and, thus, of transferring British power to a single Indian administration. Richard Stafford Cripps was responsible primarily for drafting the ingenious Cabinet Mission Plan, which proposed a three-tier federation for India, integrated by a minimal central-union government in Delhi, which would be limited to handling foreign affairs, communications, defense, and only those finances required to care for such unionwide matters. The subcontinent was to be divided into three major groups of provinces: Group A, to include the Hindu-majority provinces of the Bombay Presidency, Madras (now Chennai), the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), Bihar, Orissa, and the Central Provinces (virtually all of what became independent India a year later); Group B, to contain the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab, Sindh, the North-West Frontier, and Balochistan (the areas out of which the western part of Pakistan was created); and Group C, to include the Muslim-majority Bengal (a portion of which became the eastern part of Pakistan and in 1971 the country of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Assam. The group governments were to be virtually autonomous in everything but matters reserved to the union center, and within each group the princely states were to be integrated into their neighboring provinces. Local provincial governments were to have the choice of opting out of the group in which they found themselves should a majority of their populace vote to do so.
Punjab’s large and powerful Sikh population would have been placed in a particularly difficult and anomalous position, for Punjab as a whole would have belonged to Group B, and much of the Sikh community had become anti-Muslim since the start of the Mughal emperors’ persecution of their Gurus in the 17th century. Sikhs played so important a role in the British Indian Army that many of their leaders hoped that the British would reward them at the war’s end with special assistance in carving out their own country from the rich heart of Punjab’s fertile canal-colony lands, where, in the kingdom once ruled by Ranjit Singh (1780–1839), most Sikhs lived. Since World War I, Sikhs had been equally fierce in opposing the British raj, and, though never more than 2 percent of India’s population, they had as highly disproportionate a number of nationalist “martyrs” as of army officers. A Sikh Akali Dal (“Party of Immortals”), which was started in 1920, led militant marches to liberate gurdwaras (“doorways to the Guru”; the Sikh places of worship) from corrupt Hindu managers. Tara Singh (1885–1967), the most important leader of the vigorous Sikh political movement, first raised the demand for a separate Azad (“Free”) Punjab in 1942. By March 1946 many Sikhs demanded a Sikh nation-state, alternately called Sikhistan or Khalistan (“Land of the Sikhs” or “Land of the Pure”). The Cabinet Mission, however, had no time or energy to focus on Sikh separatist demands and found the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan equally impossible to accept.
Direct Action Day
As a pragmatist, Jinnah—terminally afflicted with tuberculosis and lung cancer—accepted the Cabinet Mission’s proposal, as did Congress Party leaders. The early summer of 1946, therefore, saw a dawn of hope for India’s future prospects, but that soon proved false when Nehru announced at his first news conference as the reelected president of the Congress Party that no constituent assembly could be “bound” by any prearranged constitutional formula. Jinnah read Nehru’s remarks as a “complete repudiation” of the plan, which had to be accepted in its entirety in order to work. Jinnah then convened the league’s Working Committee, which withdrew its previous agreement to the federation scheme and declared August 16, 1946, to be “Direct Action Day,” a day of nationwide protest by the “Muslim Nation.” Thus began India’s bloodiest year of civil war since the mutiny nearly a century earlier. The Hindu-Muslim rioting and killing that started in Calcutta sent deadly sparks of fury, frenzy, and fear to every corner of the subcontinent, as all civilized restraint seemed to disappear.
Lord Mountbatten’s arrival
Lord Louis Mountbatten (served March–August 1947) was sent to replace Archibald Percival Wavell as viceroy as Britain prepared to transfer its power over India to some “responsible” hands by no later than June 1948. Shortly after reaching Delhi, where he conferred with the leaders of all parties and with his own officials, Mountbatten decided that the situation was too dangerous to wait even that brief period. Fearing a forced evacuation of British troops still stationed in India, Mountbatten resolved to opt for partition, one that would divide Punjab and Bengal, rather than risk further political negotiations while civil war raged and a new mutiny of Indian troops seemed imminent. Among the major Indian leaders, Gandhi alone refused to reconcile himself to partition and urged Mountbatten to offer Jinnah the premiership of a united India rather than a separate Muslim nation. Nehru, however, would not agree to that, nor would his most powerful Congress Party deputy, Vallabhbhai Patel, as both had become tired of arguing with Jinnah and were eager to get on with the job of running an independent government of India.
The Indian Independence Act
Britain’s Parliament passed in July 1947 the Indian Independence Act. It ordered that the dominions of India and Pakistan be demarcated by midnight of August 14–15, 1947, now celebrated annually as Independence Day in both Pakistan (August 14) and India (August 15). It was both a glorious and a tragic moment. The peoples of the subcontinent, though deeply divided, were now free and the masters of their own destinies. Just before midnight, Nehru made his famous “Tryst with Destiny” speech to the Indian Constituent Assembly in the Parliament House.
The Partition of India and Pakistan
The Indian Independence Act ordered that the assets of the world’s largest empire—which had been integrated in countless ways for more than a century—be divided within a single month. Racing the deadline, the Boundary Commission, appointed by Mountbatten, worked desperately to partition Punjab and Bengal in such a way as to leave the maximum practical number of Muslims to the west of the former’s new boundary and to the east of the latter’s. The commission consisted of four members from the Congress Party and four from the Muslim League and was chaired by Cyril Radcliffe, a lawyer who had never before been to India. With little agreement between the parties and the deadline looming, Radcliffe made the final determination of the borders, which satisfied no one and infuriated everyone.
Dividing Punjab and Bengal, the provinces with a slim Muslim majority, caused tremendous problems, as the demographic distributions of those regions were heterogeneous and diverse. The new borders ran through the middle of villages, towns, fields, and more. When Pakistan was created, East and West Pakistan were separated by about 1,000 miles (1,600 km).
The commission also effectively cut in half the large Sikh population in Punjab. The western half of the community reacted with great concern over potential Muslim rule: the Mughal emperors had persecuted the Sikh Gurus in the 17th century, and the legacy of that persecution remained deeply felt. Although the commission had placed Amritsar, the Sikhs’ most sacred city, under Indian dominion, many other important Sikh shrines and landed estates were set to become part of Pakistan. Some Sikhs of western Punjab tried initially to retain control over their estates by pushing out local Muslims, but their attempts were met with violent reprisals. Nearly the entirety of the Sikh community ultimately fled to areas that would become part of India.
The transfer of power was completed on August 14 in Pakistan and August 15 in India, held a day apart so that Mountbatten could attend both ceremonies. With the birth of the two independent countries, the British raj formally came to an end on August 15, 1947.
The borders of the new countries were not published until August 17, two days after the end of British rule. This set the stage for an immediate escalation of communal violence in areas around the new borders. Many people did not understand what partition meant until they were in the middle of it, sometimes literally. If a border village was roughly evenly divided between Hindus and Muslims, one community could argue that the village rightly belonged to India or Pakistan by driving out or killing members of the other community.
As soon as the new borders were announced, roughly 15 million Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs fled from their homes on one side of the newly demarcated borders to what they thought would be “shelter” on the other. Some people were able to take trains or buses from one country to another, but most were forced to flee on foot, joining refugee columns that stretched for miles. These columns were the target of frequent ambushes, as were the trains that carried refugees across the new borders. In the course of that tragic exodus of innocents, as many as 2 million people were slaughtered in communal massacres (although scarce documentation left a wide range of estimates). Sikhs, settled astride Punjab’s new division, suffered the highest proportion of casualties relative to their numbers.
While the worst of the violence took place during the first six weeks of partition, the consequences of those weeks played out for decades. Even provinces that had initially escaped violence later saw outbreaks of conflict; for example, Sindh struggled to absorb large numbers of refugees (muhajirs) from India who, although Muslim, belonged to different ethnolinguistic groups from the local population. Disparities that arose from the hasty creation of Pakistan led ultimately to a devastating war in 1971 between its eastern and western provinces, which resulted in the independence of East Pakistan as Bangladesh. Territorial disputes between India and Pakistan, particularly the question of the Kashmir region, have also led to multiple wars. Moreover, tensions over the rights of Sikhs and the preservation of their communal integrity have also led to violent confrontations in India, most notably with the storming of the Harmandir Sahib in 1984 and the subsequent assassination of Indira Gandhi.
The assassination of Mahatma
Gandhi and aftermath
Amid growing communal violence, Gandhi traveled to New Delhi, India’s capital, to take part in a fast for peace and to participate in prayer meetings. His presence on the day of his death, January 30, 1948, attracted a crowd of followers estimated at between several hundred and 1,000 people. About 5:15 PM, Gandhi and his two granddaughters left Birla House, where he had been living, with the intent of leading his followers to a nearby summer pagoda where he often made his evening devotions. Nathuram Godse approached the frail politician, greeted him, then fired three shots at close range from a small-caliber revolver that he had hidden in his clasped hands, striking Gandhi in the upper thigh, abdomen, and chest. As Gandhi fell to the ground, he put his hand to his forehead in the Hindu gesture of forgiveness. He was quickly carried back into Birla House and placed on a couch, his head resting in the lap of his granddaughter Mani, who minutes later told the crowd: “Bapu is finished.” His final words were, allegedly, “He Ram, He Ram” (“Oh God, Oh God”).
News of Gandhi’s death spread quickly throughout India, generating a sometimes violent response. In Bombay (now Mumbai), riots set fundamentalist Hindus against terrified Muslims. In New Delhi, throngs of people left their homes and businesses to mourn at Birla House. Troops were sent to maintain order. A few hours after Gandhi’s death, a balcony window at Birla House was opened and Gandhi’s body was carried outside and placed in a chair facing the crowd. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru gave a radio address later in the evening in which he proclaimed a day of national mourning and appealed for calm:
The light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere. I do not know what to tell you and how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the Father of the Nation, is no more.…We will not run to him for advice and seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow….The light has gone out, I said, and yet I was wrong….The light that has illumined this country for these many years will illumine this country for many more years, and a thousand years later, that light will be seen in this country and the world will see it and it will give solace to innumerable hearts.
At the end of his speech, Nehru informed listeners that Gandhi’s body would be brought out at 11:30 AM the following day and taken to the banks of the Yamuna River, a tributary of the Ganges, and cremated there at 4 PM.
Nathuram Godse was an acolyte of a right-wing fundamentalist political ideology known as Hindutva, championed at the time by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu nationalist organization. Godse was tried by a special court inside the historic Red Fort in May 1948. When it came time for him to speak, Godse read a 30,000-word confession in which he referred to Gandhi’s murder as “wholly and exclusively political” and held Gandhi responsible for partition and communal violence. Godse said he acted alone, although seven others were later convicted in relation to the murder. Godse and an accomplice, Narayan Apte, were executed by hanging on November 15, 1949; the other six were sentenced to life in prison.
Yet Nehru carried on at India’s helm, and, owing in part to his secular enlightened leadership, not only did India’s flood of religious hatred and violence recede, but also some progress was made toward communal reconciliation and economic development. Nehru spoke out fearlessly against India’s “caste-ridden” and “priest-ridden” society, which, as a Hindu Brahman pandit, he could do without fear of too much upper-caste criticism. His charismatic brilliance, moreover, continued to make him a major vote-winner in each election campaign that he led (1951–52, 1957, and 1962) throughout his 17 arduous years in office as the Indian National Congress—opposed only by minor parties and independent candidates—dominated political life. Nehru’s modernist mentality and cosmopolitan popularity helped to hide the traditional continuity of India’s internal problems, few of which disappeared under his leadership.
The promulgation of the Indian constitution
The dominion of India was reborn on January 26, 1950, as a sovereign democratic republic and a union of states. That day is celebrated annually as Republic Day, a national holiday commemorating the adoption of India’s constitution on January 26, 1950. The constitution was crafted under the chairmanship of Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and resolved to secure for its citizens liberty, equality, and fraternity.
With universal adult franchise, India’s electorate was the world’s largest, but the traditional feudal roots of most of its illiterate populace were deep, just as their religious caste beliefs were to remain far more powerful than more recent exotic ideas, such as secular statehood. Elections were to be held, however, at least every five years, and the major model of government followed by India’s constitution was that of British parliamentary rule, with a lower House of the People (Lok Sabha), in which an elected prime minister and a cabinet sat, and an upper Council of States (Rajya Sabha). Nehru led his ruling Congress Party from New Delhi’s Lok Sabha until his death in 1964. The nominal head of India’s republic, however, was a president, who was indirectly elected. India’s first two presidents were Hindu Brahmans, Rajendra Prasad and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the latter a distinguished Sanskrit scholar who had lectured at the University of Oxford. Presidential powers were mostly ceremonial, except for brief periods of “emergency” rule, when the nation’s security was believed to be in great danger and normal constitutional procedures and civil rights were feared to be too cumbersome or threatening.